Trees of History in Systematics, Historical Linguistics, and Stemmatics: A Working Interdisciplinary Bibliography

Version of March 1993

Note: A pdf copy of this document, suitable for printing, is available on the Social Science Research Network (SSRN #2540351).

This bibliography was compiled by Robert J. O’Hara for the members of Darwin-L, an academic discussion group on the history and theory of the historical sciences (1993–1997). The master copy is maintained in the Files section of the Darwin-L Archives (rjohara.net/darwin). My own field is systematics, so that is the area in which this list is most detailed. This is a working bibliography: my object here was not to be exhaustive, but rather to provide a set of citations that would help advanced students in any one of these fields get a better sense of what has gone on and is going on in the other fields, with special reference to theory. Studies of particular biological taxa, language families, or manuscript traditions that do not have a theoretical or historical emphasis are generally excluded. Asterisks indicate works that may be particularly useful to beginners.

This bibliography may be freely distributed in print or electronically as long as the references and this introduction remain intact. Additional bibliographies on the history of systematics, on narrative in the historical sciences, and on the works of Stephen Toulmin are also available in the Darwin-L Archives.

Note · February 2006: A small number of additions and corrections have been made to this bibliography since it was initially compiled in 1993, but no comprehensive revision has been attempted. The term tree thinking, which is now in widespread use, was introduced in my 1988 “Homage to Clio” paper and was further developed in my papers on “Telling the tree” (1992), “Evolutionary history and the species problem” (1994), and “Population thinking and tree thinking in systematics” (1997). Searching rjohara.net for the phrase “tree thinking” will return many more pages of additional commentary.

Contents

A. Interdisciplinary Works
B. General and Theoretical Works – Systematics
C. General and Theoretical Works – Historical Linguistics
D. General and Theoretical Works – Stemmatics
E. Historical Works – Systematics
F. Historical Works – Historical Linguistics
G. Historical Works – Stemmatics
H. Trees of History Elsewhere
I. Miscellaneous Works on Evolution in Relation to Other Fields

A. Interdisciplinary Works

• Bateman, Richard, Ives Goddard, Richard T. O’Grady, Vicki A. Funk, Rich Mooi, W.J. Kress, & Peter Cannell. 1990. Speaking of forked tongues: the feasibility of reconciling human phylogeny and the history of language. Current Anthropology, 31: 1–24. [See also responses and commentary on pp. 177–183, 315–316, 420–426.]
• Bender, M.L. 1976. Genetic classification of languages: genotype vs. phenotype. Language Sciences, 43: 4–6.
• Flight, Colin. 1988. Bantu trees and some wider ramifications. African Languages and Cultures, 1: 25–43. [Reanalyzes some linguistic data using the distance Wagner procedure from systematics.]
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1957. Language and evolutionary theory. Pp. 56–65 in: Essays in Linguistics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Hoenigswald, Henry M. 1990. Language families and subgroupings, tree model and wave theory, and reconstruction of protolanguages. Pp. 441–454 in: Research Guide on Language Change (Edgar C. Polome, ed.). Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs, 48. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. [Short historical and theoretical discussion of the tree model and the principle of shared innovation (apomorphy), and the discovery of some of the limitations of trees in linguistics.]
• *Hoenigswald, Henry M., & Linda F. Wiener, eds. 1987. Biological Metaphor and Cladistic Classification: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. [The most important single interdisciplinary collection, with papers on all three subjects.]
• Koerner, E.F. Konrad. 1981. Schleichers Einfluß auf Haeckel: Schlaglichter auf die wechselseitige Abhangigkeit zwischen linguistichen und biologischen Theorien in 19. Jahrhundert. Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung, 95: 1–21. [Reprinted in Koerner, 1989, Practicing Linguistic Historiography: Selected Essays, pp. 211–231 (Amsterdam: John Benjamins).]
• Koerner, E.F. Konrad, ed. 1983. Linguistics and Evolutionary Theory: Three Essays by August Schleicher, Ernst Haeckel, and William Bleek, with an Introduction by J. Peter Maher. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. [Contains: (1) Schleicher, 1863, The Darwinian Theory and the Science of Language; (2) Schleicher, 1865, On the Significance of Language for the Natural History of Man; (3) Bleek, 1867, On the Origin of Language (with preface by Haeckel); (4) W.D. Whitney, 1872, Dr. Bleek and the Simious Theory of Language.]
• Lee, Arthur. 1989. Numerical taxonomy revisited: John Griffith, cladistic analysis and St. Augustine’s Quaestiones in Heptateuchum. Studia Patristica, 20: 24–32. [Application of cladistic techniques to a stemmatic problem.]
• Maher, John Peter. 1966. More on the history of the comparative method: the tradition of Darwinism in August Schleicher’s work. Anthropological Linguistics, 8: 1–12.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1996. Mapping the space of time: temporal representation in the historical sciences. Pp. 7–17 in: New Perspectives on the History of Life: Systematic Biology as Historical Narrative (M.T. Ghiselin & G. Pinna, eds.). Memoirs of the California Academy of Sciences, 20.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1996. Trees of history in systematics and philology. Memorie della Società Italiana di Scienze Naturali e del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, 27(1): 81–88.
• O’Hara, Robert J., & Peter M.W. Robinson. 1993. Computer-assisted methods of stemmatic analysis. Occasional Papers of the Canterbury Tales Project, 1: 53–74.
• Picardi, Eva. 1977. Some problems of classification in linguistics and biology, 1800–1830. Historiographia Linguistica, 4: 31–57.
• Platnick, Norman I., & H. Don Cameron. 1977. Cladistic methods in textual, linguistic, and phylogenetic analysis. Systematic Zoology, 26: 380–385.
• Robinson, Peter M.W., & Robert J. O’Hara. 1996. Cladistic analysis of an Old Norse Manuscript tradition. Research in Humanities Computing. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [Application of systematic techniques to a stemmatic problem.]
• Shevoroshkin, Vitaly, & John Woodford. 1991. Where linguistics, archeology, and biology meet. Pp. 173–197 in: Ways of Knowing (John Brockman, ed.). New York: Prentice Hall Press.
• Stevick, Robert D. 1963. The biological model and historical linguistics. Language, 39: 159–169.
• Uschmann, Georg. 1972. August Schleicher und Ernst Haeckel. Spitzbardt, 1972: 62–70.

B. General and Theoretical Works: Systematics

• *Brooks, Daniel R., & Deborah A. McLennan. 1991. Phylogeny, Ecology, and Behavior: A Research Program in Comparative Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [Chapter 2 is an introduction to cladistic analysis.]
• Camin, Joseph H., & Robert R. Sokal. 1965. A method for deducing branching sequences in phylogeny. Evolution, 19: 311–326. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• Edwards, A.W.F., & Luigi L. Cavalli-Sforza. 1964. Reconstruction of evolutionary trees. Pp. 67–76 in: Phenetic and Phylogenetic Classification (V.H. Heywood & J. McNeill, eds.). Systematics Association Publication 6. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• Farris, J.S. 1970. Methods for computing Wagner trees. Systematic Zoology, 19: 83–92. [An early influential paper, now largely superseded.]
• Farris, James S., Arnold G. Kluge, & M.J. Eckardt. 1970. A numerical approach to phylogenetic systematics. Systematic Zoology, 19: 172–189. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• Felsenstein, Joseph. 1982. Numerical methods for inferring evolutionary trees. Quarterly Review of Biology, 57: 379–404.
• Fitch, Walter M., & Emmanuel Margoliash. 1967. The construction of phylogenetic trees. Science, 155: 279–284. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• Hennig, Willi. 1965. Phylogenetic systematics. Annual Review of Entomology, 10: 97–116. [A synopsis of Hennig (1966).]
• Hennig, Willi. 1966. Phylogenetic Systematics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
• Kluge, Arnold G., & James S. Farris. 1969. Quantitative phyletics and the evolution of anurans. Systematic Zoology, 18: 1–32. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• Maddison, Wayne P., Michael J. Donoghue, & David R. Maddison. 1984. Outgroup analysis and parsimony. Systematic Zoology, 33: 83–103. [A review of outgroup comparison as a method of polarity determination.]
• *Maddison, Wayne P., & David R. Maddison. 1989. Interactive analysis of phylogeny and character evolution using the computer program MacClade. Folia Primatologica, 53: 190–202.
• *Maddison, Wayne P., & David R. Maddison. 1992. MacClade, version 3. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates. [Computer program for interactive analysis of evolutionary trees. Comes with introductory text.]
• Mayr, Ernst. 1974. Cladistic analysis or cladistic classification. Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutions-forschung, 12: 94–128. [Clarified the important distinction between historical inference (cladistic analysis) and classification.]
• *Mayr, Ernst, & Peter D. Ashlock. 1991. Principles of Systematic Zoology, second edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. [Pp. 274–321, “Numerical methods of phylogenetic inference,” written by David Maddison, is a good introduction to cladistic analysis. Much of the rest of the book is outdated.]
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1988. Homage to Clio, or, toward an historical philosophy for evolutionary biology. Systematic Zoology, 37: 142–155. [A discussion of the theoretical similarities between history and evolutionary biology; introduced the notion of “tree thinking” which has since become popular.]
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1993. Systematic generalization, historical fate, and the species problem. Systematic Biology, 42(3): 231–246.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1997. Population thinking and tree thinking in systematics. Zoologica Scripta, 26(4): 323–329.
• *Sober, Elliott. 1988. Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference. Cambridge: MIT Press.
• Stevens, Peter F. 1980. Evolutionary polarity of character states. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11: 333–358.
• *Swofford, David L., & Gary J. Olsen. 1990. Phylogenetic reconstruction. Pp. 411–501 in: Molecular Systematics (D.M. Hillis & C. Moritz, eds.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer. [An advanced but comprehensive introduction.]
• Wagner, Warren H., Jr. 1961. Problems in the classification of ferns. Recent Advances in Botany, 1: 841–844. [One of several early influential papers in modern phylogenetic theory.]
• *Wiley, Edward O. 1981. Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics. New York: Wiley. [A general textbook on systematics.]
• Zuckerkandl, E., & Linus Pauling. 1965. Molecules as documents of evolutionary history. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 8: 357–366.
• [Journals: Systematic Zoology (now Systematic Biology), Cladistics, Systematic Botany, Taxon, Zeitschrift für zoologische Systematik und Evolutions-forschung, Zoologica Scripta.]
• [Software: MacClade; PAUP; PHYLIP; HENNIG-86; Clados; and others. See Maddison in Mayr & Ashlock, pp. 320–321 for a listing.]

C. General and Theoretical Works: Historical Linguistics

• Allen, W. S. 1953. Relationship in comparative linguistics. Transactions of the Philological Society, 1953: 52–108.
• Anttila, Raimo. 1989. Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Amsterdam. [A general textbook.]
• Bynon, Theodora. 1977. Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [A general textbook.]
• Chretien, C. Douglas. 1963. Shared innovation and subgrouping. International Journal of American Linguistics, 29: 66–68.
• *Gamkrelidze, Thomas V., & V.V. Ivanov. 1990. The early history of Indo-European languages. Scientific American, March, pp. 110–116.
• Gleason, H.A. 1959. Counting and calculating for historical reconstruction. Anthropological Linguistics, 1(2): 22–32.
• Grace, George W. 1965. On the scientific status of genetic classification in linguistics. Oceanic Linguistics, 4: 1–14.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Hetzron, Robert. 1976. Two principles of genetic reconstruction. Lingua, 38: 89–108.
• Hock, Hans Henrich. 1991. Principles of Historical Linguistics, second edition. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. [A general textbook.]
• Hoenigswald, Henry M. 1966. Criteria for the subgrouping of languages. Pp. 1–12 in: Ancient Indo-European Dialects (Henrik Brinbaum & Jaan Puhvel, eds.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
• *Mallory, James P. 1989. In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archeology, and Myth. London: Thames and Hudson.
• Nichols, Johanna. 1992. Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Pulgram, E. 1953. Family tree, wave theory, and dialectology. Orbis, 2: 67–72.
• *Renfrew, Colin. 1989. The origins of Indo-European languages. Scientific American, October, pp. 106–114.
• *Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. A Guide to the World’s Languages. Volume 1: Classification. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Shevoroshkin, Vitaly, & T.L. Markey, eds. 1986. Typology, Relationship, and Time: A Collection of Papers on Language Change and Relationship by Soviet Linguists. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers.
• Shevoroshkin, Vitaly, ed. 1989. Reconstructing Languages and Cultures. Studienverlag Dr. Norbert Brockmeier.
• Shevoroshkin, Vitaly. 1989. Methods in interphyletic comparisons. Ural-Altaische Jahrbucher, 61: 1–26.
• Shevoroshkin, Vitaly. 1990. The mother tongue. The Sciences, May-June.
• *Wright, R. 1991. Quest for the mother tongue. Atlantic, 267(4): 39–68. [Popular magazine article.]
• [Journals: Diachronica; Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics.]

D. General and Theoretical Works: Stemmatics

• Clark, A.C. 1918. The Descent of Manuscripts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Colwell, Ernest Cadman. 1947. Genealogical method: its achievements and limitations. Journal of Biblical Literature, 66: 109–133.
• Dawe, R.D. 1964. The Collation and Investigation of Manuscripts of Aeschylus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [On the limitations of stemmatics.]
• Greg, W.W. 1927. The Calculus of Variants: An Essay on Textual Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Greg, W.W. 1930. Recent theories of textual criticism. Modern Philology, 28: 401–404. [Reply to Shepard (1930).]
• Griesbach, Johann Jakob. 1796. Prolegomena to his second edition of the New Testament. [Establishes the principle of lectio difficilior, and other rules, fide Shepard (1930).]
• Kleinlogel, Alexander. 1968. Das Stemmaproblem. Philologus, 112: 63–82.
• Maas, Paul. 1958. Textual Criticism. (Translated from the German by Barbara Flower.) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Quentin, Henri. 1926. Essais de Critique Textuelle. Paris: Picard.
• Reeve, M.D. 1986. Stemmatic method: ‘qualcosa che non funziona’? The Role of the Book in Medieval Culture (Proceedings of the Oxford International Symposium, 1982, edited by Peter Ganz), 1: 57–69. Bibliologia, vol. 3. Brepols, Turnhout.
• *Reynolds, Leighton D., ed. 1983. Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• *Reynolds, Leighton D., & N.G. Wilson. 1991. Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature. Third Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Reviewed by Possanza, 1991, Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 2: 431–438.]
• Shepard, William P. 1930. Recent theories of textual criticism. Modern Philology, 28: 129–141. [Critique of Quentin (1926) and Greg (1927); see Greg (1930) for a response.]
• Weitzman, Michael. 1985. The analysis of open traditions. Studies in Bibliography, 38: 82–120. [A substantial discussion of how to reconstruct the history of contaminated manuscript traditions.]
• Weitzman, Michael. 1987. The evolution of manuscript traditions. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series A, 150: 287–308. [Develops a statistical model of the process of manuscript descent.]
• West, M.L. 1973. Textual Criticism and Editorial Technique. Stuttgart.
• Whitehead, F., & C.E. Pickford. 1951. The two-branch stemma. Bulletin Bibliographique de la Societe Internationale Arthurienne / Bibliographical Bulletin of the International Arthurian Society, 3: 83–90.
• Zuntz, G. 1965. An Inquiry into the Transmission of the Plays of Euripides. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

E. Historical Works: Systematics

Note: See the separate bibliography on the history of systematics for additional references on this subject.

• Barsanti, Giulio. 1988. Le immagini della natura: scale, mappe, alberi 1700–1800. Nuncius, 3: 55–125. [History of scales, maps, and trees in 18th century systematics.]
• Craw, Robin. 1992. Margins of cladistics: identity, difference and place in the emergence of phylogenetic systematics, 1864–1975. Pp. 65–107 in: Trees of Life: Essays in Philosophy of Biology (Paul Griffiths, ed.). Australasian Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 11.
• Greene, John C. 1959. The Death of Adam. Ames: Iowa State University Press. [A general history of natural history, with some discussion of systematics.]
• Gruber, Howard E. 1972. Darwin’s ‘tree of nature’ and other images of wider scope. Pp. 121–140 in: On Aesthetics in Science (Judith Wechsler, ed.). Cambridge: MIT Press.
• Hull, David L. 1988. Science as a Process: An Evolutionary Account of the Social and Conceptual Development of Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [An analysis based on Hull’s studies of the recent (post-1960) history of systematics. See Craw (1992) for criticism.]
• Lam, H.J. 1936. Phylogenetic symbols, past and present. Acta Biotheoretica, 2: 152–194.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1988. Diagrammatic classifications of birds, 1819–1901: views of the natural system in 19th-century British ornithology. Pp. 2746–2759 in: Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici (H. Ouellet, ed.). Ottawa: National Museum of Natural Sciences.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1991. Representations of the natural system in the nineteenth century. Biology and Philosophy, 6: 255–274.
• O’Hara, Robert J. 1992. Telling the tree: narrative representation and the study of evolutionary history. Biology and Philosophy, 7: 135–160. [On the similarities and differences between historical narratives and evolutionary trees.]
• Oppenheimer, Jane M. 1987. Haeckel’s variations on Darwin. Hoenigswald & Wiener, 1987: 123–135. [On the tree diagrams of the German evolutionist Ernst Haeckel.]
• de Queiroz, Kevin. 1988. Systematics and the Darwinian revolution. Philosophy of Science, 55: 238–259. [A good interpretation of the recent history of systematics.]
• Reif, Wolf-Ernst. 1983. Hilgendorf’s (1863) dissertation on the Steinheim planorbids (Gastropoda; Miocene): the development of a phylogenetic research program for paleontology. Palaontologische Zeitschrift, 57: 7–20.
• Stevens, Peter F. 1982. Augustin Augier’s “Arbre Botanique” (1801), a remarkable early botanical representation of the natural system. Taxon, 32: 203–211.
• Stevens, Peter F. 1984. Metaphors and typology in the development of botanical systematics 1690–1960, or the art of putting new wine in old bottles. Taxon, 33: 169–211.
• Stevens, Peter F. 1994. The Development of Biological Systematics: Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu, Nature, and the Natural System. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Voss, E.G. 1952. The history of keys and phylogenetic trees in systematic biology. Journal of the Scientific Laboratory, Denison University, 43: 1–25.
• Wagner, Warren H., Jr. 1980. Origin and philosophy of the groundplan-divergence method of cladistics. Systematic Botany, 5: 173–193.
• Winsor, Mary P. 1976. Starfish, Jellyfish, and the Order of Life. New Haven: Yale University Press.

F. Historical Works: Historical Linguistics

• Bonfante, Giuliano. 1954. Ideas on the kinship of the European languages from 1200 to 1800. Journal of World History, 1: 679–699.
• De Mauro, T., & L. Formigari. 1990. Leibniz, Humboldt, and the Origins of Comparativism. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. [Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, 49.]
• Hoenigswald, Henry M. 1963. On the history of the comparative method. Anthropological Linguistics, 5(1): 1–11.
• Hoenigswald, Henry M. 1975. Schleicher’s tree and its trunk. Pp. 157–160 in: Ut Videam: Contributions to an Understanding of Linguistics. For Pieter Verburg on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday (Werner Abraham et al., eds.). Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press.
• Hymes, Dell, ed. 1974. Studies in the History of Linguistics: Traditions and Paradigms. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Koerner, E.F. Konrad. 1978. Toward a historiography of linguistics: 19th and 20th century paradigms. Pp. 21–50 in: Toward a Historiography of Linguistics: Selected Essays. Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science, III. Studies in the History of Linguistics, vol. 19. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
• Koerner, E.F. Konrad. 1982. The Schleicherian paradigm in linguistics. General Linguistics, 22: 1–39.
• Morpurgo Davies, Anna. 1975. Language classification in the Nineteenth Century. Current Trends in Linguistics, 13: 607–716.
• Myers, L.F., & W.S.-Y. Wang. 1963. Tree representations in linguistics. In: Project on Linguistic Analysis, Report No. 3, Ohio State University Research Foundation (N.S.F. Grant G-25055). [Citation fide Hoenigswald & Wiener (1987: 256).]
• Pederson, Holger. 1931. The Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. [Reprinted 1962, Indiana University Press, Bloomington.]
• Priestly, Tom M.S. 1975. Schleicher, Celakovsky, and the family-tree diagram. Historiographica Linguistica, 2: 299–333.
• Robins, Robert H. 1973. The history of language classification. Current Trends in Linguistics, 11: 3–41.
• Robins, Robert H. 1979. A Short History of Linguistics. London.
• Robins, Robert H. 1987. The life and work of Sir William Jones. Transactions of the Philological Society, 1987: 1–23. [Short biography of an 18th century founder of historical linguistics.]
• Southworth, Franklin C. 1964. Family-tree diagrams. Language, 40: 557–565.
• Stewart, Ann H. 1976. Graphic Representation of Models in Linguistic Theory. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.
• Uschmann, G. 1967. Zur Geschichte der Stammbaumdarstellungen. Gesammelte Vortrage uber moderne Probleme der Abstammungslehre (M. Gersch, ed.), 2: 9–30. Jena: Friedrich Schiller Universitat.
• [Journals: Historiographica Linguistica.]

G. Historical Works: Stemmatics

• Holm, Gosta. 1972. Carl Johan Schlyter and textual scholarship. Saga och Sed (Kungliga Gustav Adolf Akademiens Aarsbok), 1972: 48–80. [Reproduces Schlyter’s stemma of legal texts (the earliest known) from 1827.]
• Prete, Sesto. 1969. Observations on the History of Textual Criticism in the Medieval and Renaissance Periods. Collegeville, Minnesota: St. John’s University Press. [A lecture given in the series “Medieval and Renaissance Studies” at St. John’s College.]
• Timpanaro, Sebastiano. 1981. La Genesi del Metodo del Lachmann, third edition. Padua: Liviana.

H. Trees of History Elsewhere

• Cook, Roger. 1974. The Tree of Life: Image for the Cosmos. New York: Thames and Hudson. [An art-historical study of tree imagery. Includes some historical and genealogical trees. (Reprinted 1988.)]
• Murdoch, John E. 1984. Album of Science: Antiquity and the Middle Ages. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. [Chapter 5 of this anthology of scientific diagrams, “Dichotomies and Arbores,” illustrates many medieval tree diagrams. Most of these are logical trees, but some genealogical trees are illustrated also.]
• Toulmin, Stephen E. 1972. Human Understanding. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [Evolutionary epistemology and trees of disciplinary development.]
• Young, Gavin C. 1986. Cladistic methods in paleozoic continental reconstruction. Journal of Geology, 94: 523–537.

I. Miscellaneous Works on Evolution in Relation to Other Fields

• Bichakjian, B. 1987. The evolution of word order: a paedomorphic explanation. Pp. 87–108 in: Papers from the 7th International Conference on Historical Linguistics (A.G. Ramat et al., eds.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Bredeck, Elizabeth J. 1987. Historical narrative or scientific discipline? Fritz Mauthner on the limits of linguistics. Pp. 585–593 in: Papers in the History of Linguistics (Hans Aarsleff, Louis G. Kelly, & Hans-Josef Niederehe, eds.). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
• Durham, William H. 1990. Advances in evolutionary culture theory. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19: 187–210.
• Kennedy, George A. 1992. A hoot in the dark: the evolution of general rhetoric. Philosophy and Rhetoric, 25: 1–21.
• Lass, Roger. 1990. How to do things with junk: exaptation in language evolution. Journal of Linguistics, 26: 79–102.
• Leroy, Maurice. 1950. Sur le concept d’evolution en linguistique. Revue de l’Institut de Sociologie, 1949(3): 337–375.
• Masters, R.D. 1990. Evolutionary biology and political theory. American Political Science Review, 84: 195–210.
• Sereno, M.I. 1991. Four analogies between biological and cultural linguistic evolution. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 151: 467–507.
• Smith, Donald T. 1993. The new view of biological evolution: organizational applications to higher education. Review of Higher Education, 16(2): 141–156. [Displays limited understanding of evolution.]
• Terrell, John. 1981. Linguistics and the peopling of the Pacific islands. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 90: 225–258. [Biogeography and linguistics.]